A band of fibrous tissue that connects muscle to bone is called what

Tendon tissue regeneration

L.A. Bosworth , in Electrospinning for Tissue Regeneration, 2011

Abstract:

Tendons are highly fibrous tissues that are capable of withstanding specially high tensile loads. Unfortunately, tendons can degenerate as a outcome of repetitive loading, which may lead to their eventual rupture. Current clinical interventions commonly issue in a healed tendon that is both biochemically and biomechanically inferior and highly susceptible to re-rupture. An unmet clinical demand remains and many researchers are seeking to address this with the use of degradable biomaterials to create tissue engineered tendons. This affiliate focuses on how the electrospinning technique tin create scaffolds which closely resemble the natural tendon structure.

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The response of tissue to light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation low-cal

A. Douplik , ... V.V. Tuchin , in Lasers for Medical Applications, 2013

3.5.3 Fibrous tissue scattering

Likewise cell components, fibrous tissue structures such as collagen, elastin and muscles must exist considered important scatterers. In addition to handful on private fibers or fibrils, bundles of fibers may act equally slits diffracting lite in the direction perpendicular to the orientation of the fibers.

Collagen, in the form of elongated fibrils, is mostly found in fibrous tissues. The private collagen fibrils form sheets known as lamellae in the corneal stroma (1–2   μm thick) and collagen fibers (1–x   μm in diameter) in tissues such as tendon and dermis. ³²

Elastin is a protein in connective tissue that allows tissues in the body to resume their shape after stretching or contracting. The elastic substance appears composed of fibers, about 5–6   μm in diameter, ⁴⁵ embedded in an amorphous matrix.

Muscle consists of packets of fibers, each fiber being betwixt 20 and 100   μm in diameter, and the fibers are made upwards of cylindrical structures (myofibrils) parallel to the fiber axes, which are about 1 to 3   μm in diameter.

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Mechanical properties of the optic nerve head

Junfei Tong , Linxia Gu , in Mechanical Behaviour of Biomaterials, 2019

3.2.3 Dura mater

Dura mater is a fibrous tissue protecting the brain, spinal cord, and the optic nervus. It is composed of collagen and elastin and is flexible to accommodate the stretch and deformation caused by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure level changes [47]. The dura fiber anisotropy varies with its location. The human being lumbar dura cobweb has a preferred alignment along the longitudinal direction, while homo cranial dura is shut to isotropic [48–51]. The anisotropy in the lumbar dura may be attributed to longitudinal stretch when the spine bends anteriorly, while for cranial dura, the stretch is more uniform in both directions and thus it shows isotropic behavior [50].

The mechanical properties of the dura mater attracted lots of attention in the 1970s because of its demonstrated performance as a heart valve replacement [48, 52–54]. Recently, dura mater was investigated towards better understanding of the tissue damage caused by traumatic injury, spinal string injury, and subdural and epidural hematomas [55–57]. The material characterizations of the dura mater are summarized in Table 3.iii. Pregnant variations between unlike groups likewise as different species are exhibited.

Tabular array 3.three. Summary of material properties of the dura mater

Species	Number of samples	Age range	Location	Test method	Treatment		Tangent modulus	Ref.
Human	vi	39–86 (58.5)	Lumbar	Uniaxial	Tested within 120   h frozen at −   4°C examination strain: 20%–lx%		Longitudinal stiffness: 60–100   MPa circumferential stiffness: <   10   MPa	[l]
	sixteen	20–77		Uniaxial	Preserved in 98% glycerol test strain: 16%–20%		21.3–48   MPa	[54]
	13	17–72	Encephalon	Uniaxial	Preserved in 98% glycerol test strain: not bachelor		Fresh: 61.5   MPa, glycerol: 45.2   MPa	[48]
Porcine	28		Cervix	Uniaxial	Preserved in 0.nine% normal saline at 4°C for <   24   h	Test strain: <   50%	not quantitatively evaluated	[57]
	xv		Optic nervus	Uniaxial	Testing strain <   14%, Yeoh model		C1   =   0.17   MPa, C2   =   4.21   MPa, C3   =   −   4.97   MPa	[58]
Ovine	12		Spine	Biaxial	Testing strain <   12%, anisotropic		Circumferential direction: 1.thirteen   MPa Longitudinal direction: 0.32   MPa	[55]
Bovine	38	16–24   month	Spine	Uniaxial	Testing strain <   lx%, Ogden model		Circumferential management: 0–6   MPa (instant shear modulus) Longitudinal management: 0–0.04   MPa (instant shear modulus)	[59]
	9		Spine	Relaxation	Testing strain: 2%–46%, quasilinear theory		Circumferential direction: 92–380   MPa Longitudinal direction: 0.2–iii.4   MPa	[threescore]
			Lumbar	Uniaxial	Tested within 96   h frozen at −   4°C Exam strain: 80%–120%		Longitudinal stiffness: 25–eighty   MPa	[fifty]
Rat		77   ±   5   days	Spine and brain	Uniaxial and relaxation	Testing strain <   50%, Ogden model		Spinal dura: ane.20   MPa (instant shear modulus) Cranial dura: 0.42   MPa (instant shear modulus)	[61]

Glycerol was a widely used agent for preserving the dura mater before surgery, including heart valve replacement. Van Noort et al. evaluated the influence of glycerol or saline on the mechanical behavior of the human dura mater [53, 54]. The rubberband modulus of the human dura mater ranged from 21.3 to 48   MPa, regardless of preservation in glycerol for 12 or 30   days. Like results were likewise observed for the saline. McGarvey et al. observed that the glycerol resulted in a reduced stiffness from 61.5 to 45.2   MPa, while such a change was non significant. This indicated that glycerol and saline could exist used as a storage or examination medium without altering the material properties of the dura mater. Moreover, the tensile strength of the dura mater was found decreased with historic period (R  =   0.79). This implied a deterioration process with aging for dura mater [53].

Most studies investigated the mechanical behavior of the dura mater in the spine or lumbar (Table iii.3), while only one report focused on the brain dura mater [48]. It was plant that cranial dura mater is completely isotropic. For dura mater at the lumbar or spine, the collagen fiber was found to be more than aligned along the longitudinal direction in human or other species [50, 59, 61]. The dura mater in the circumferential direction had a low crimped-to-straight length ratio (1.21), compared to that of the longitudinal direction (1.66) [59]. Because of that, the dura mater exhibits stiffer behavior at low strain in the circumferential direction [55, 57, 59, 60]. Equally the cobweb was fully stretched, significant stiffer dura mater was observed along the longitudinal direction [fifty, 59]. An interesting finding in porcine cervical dura mater was that it was close to isotropic on the dorsal side but tends to exist stiffer in the circumferential direction on the ventral side. The discrepancy may be attributed to its location, as the dura mater was from vertebra C2, which was mainly responsible for rotation, where the ventral side contributes more in maintaining the vertebral stability and thus might be stiffer along the circumferential management. It worth noting that mechanical properties from biaxial tests in ovine were i–2 orders of magnitude lower than those from a uniaxial test in other species. The exact reason for such phenomenon is yet unknown, information technology may exist attributed to the natural variability of dura mater between different species.

Dura mater was not sensitive to the strain rate [48, 59–61]. Wilcox et al. observed no pregnant changes in the stiffness of bovine dura mater through stress relaxation tests at strain rates ranging from two% to 46% per min. McGarvey et al. evaluated the human being cranial dura through a stress relaxation test with strain charge per unit ranging from 5% to 500% per min, where they found no significant difference in the stress–strain bend for fresh or preserved dura mater [48]. A similar result was besides observed by Persson et al. in bovine spinal cord dura mater using a uniaxial exam with strain rate as 0.01, 0.1, and ane   south^{−   ane}; no pregnant difference was found in the Ogden model parameters nether different strain rate [59]. Equally mentioned in the sclera section, strain rate was found to significantly influence the sclera mechanical properties [xiii]; the strain rate influence discrepancy between dura mater and sclera may be attributed to the big natural variability of the biomaterial itself.

The mechanical behavior of the dura mater was important in computational modeling to understand the mechanism of glaucoma as well as visual impairment and intracranial pressure level (VIIP) syndrome [nine, 10]. While the current material exam for dura mater is mainly focused on cranial and spinal dura mater, merely few studies had tested the mechanical backdrop of optic nerve dura mater [58]. As aforementioned, the location has a significant influence on the dura mater microstructure alignment in response to loading conditions. While the microstructure alignment of the optic nerve dura mater was poorly studied. Based on the circular loading from CSF, the loading condition of dura mater is like to that of avenue. Since the inner layer of avenue has a preferred alignment along the circumferential management [62], we thus speculate the optic nervus dura mater may also have a like alignment. The understanding of the dura mater microstructure alignment is important as information technology may explain the regional difference of the dura mater textile properties. Maiko et al. evaluated the dura mater of rat in both spine and brain; they found that spinal dura mater (1.2   MPa) was significantly stiffer than cranial dura mater (0.42   MPa) [61]. In improver, an accurate characterization of the optic nerve dura mater is of nifty of import for the numerical modeling of the ocular diseases [58].

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Plaque Characterization Methods Using Intravascular Ultrasound Imaging

Lambros S. Athanasiou , ... Lampros Grand. Michalis , in Atherosclerotic Plaque Characterization Methods Based on Coronary Imaging, 2017

four.2.3.2 FFT and NC Detection

Using the to a higher place approach, DC and FT tin can be detected within the ROI. The rest of the ROI is considered every bit FFT, NC plaque, and media region. The advent of FFT and LT tissue does not accept whatsoever mutual feature every bit DC and FT take. Therefore, other characteristics of tissue advent must be taken into consideration. Texture is i of the main characteristics of tissue appearance in IVUS grayscale images, especially of FFT and NC. The classification of the pixels of the ROI that are non classified to DC and FT tin be classified to FFT and NC based on the pixels texture and intensity values. The FFT and NC tin be detected using the following approach:

•

extract a fix of texture features in a $\mathrm{north}\times n$ neighborhood for each pixel that is not classified to DC and FT, and

•

use a classification algorithm to classify the pixels to FFT and NC.

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Volume 2

Michel Assad , Nicolette Jackson , in Encyclopedia of Biomedical Technology, 2019

Ligament Repair

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) fixation model

The ligament is a fragile, viscoelastic gristly tissue with bundles of collagen fibers as well equally elastin, fibronectin, and proteoglycans. Torn anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tissue is often replaced using synthetic grafts or autologous grafting, rather than repairing the ligament directly. ACL tears generally occur in athletic sports following a sudden contact or directional change (due east.yard., pivoting on ane foot while the toe is on the ground), causing a rotational injury with subsequent ACL partial or full tears. There are a variety of surgical techniques used to supplant the ligament, including sutures, bone plugs, plates, anchors, screw/washers and interference screws that secure the graft textile within bone tunnels in the femoral condyle and tibial plateau.

Transection of the ACL in gild to generate a model for ACL repair tin be performed in dogs, nonhuman primates, and sheep. Sheep are known to take relatively large articular complexes for healing models, with a degree of flexion relatively shut to the man articular circuitous (e.g., every bit opposed to rabbits). In the ovine ACL reconstruction model, the natural ACL can be sharply dissected at its origin and replaced past an allograft or synthetic biomaterial. The lateral digital extensor tendon tin can besides be harvested from the ipsilateral limb (Walsh et al., 2007). An approximately 12-cm long extensor tendon tin can be doubled over to provide a 2-stranded soft-tissue graft for the ACL reconstruction. Sequential bone tunnels are drilled in the tibial plateau and femoral condyle, then using pin guides and cannulated bone reamers, tunnels are created and a stump insertion of the graft is made at the origin of the native ACL from the anterior surface of the tibia to the posterior surface of the femoral condyle. The graft is so tensioned and secured in place with interference screws. Fixation strength, tendon-os healing, implant resorption, and new bone ingrowth tin be evaluated using this blazon of adult ovine tendon-bone healing model.

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Collagen-based nanobiomaterials

Gabriela Purcel , ... Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu , in Nanobiomaterials in Soft Tissue Engineering, 2016

seven.1 Introduction

Collagen is the main structural protein of mammalian fibrous tissues, being institute in tendons, ligaments, and skin. It also constitutes about one.5% of the muscular tissue and is abundant in cornea, blood vessels, and cartilage. Collagen occurred early in phylogeny, beingness present in primeval marine animals, similar jellyfishes, corals, and anemones. It is synthesized by fibroblasts arising from pluripotential adventitial cells or reticulum cells ( Selestina and Vanja, 2011; Lee et al., 2001).

To date, 29 collagen types have been discovered and described, however, the main collagen blazon from the trunk is blazon I collagen which can be found in bones, skin, ligatures, and even organs. Even though type I collagen occupies over 90% of the collagen in the human body, when it comes to the formation of scar tissue because of age or as a crusade of injuries, an interchange between types I and Three occurs (Selestina and Vanja, 2011).

Collagen has a particular and uncommon construction, consisting of 3 polypeptide chains twisted together as in a three-stranded rope, each i with its individual twist in the reverse direction. It has a repetitive sequence of which every 3rd residue of collagen molecule is glycine and the whole sequence of the polypeptide chain can exist described as Ten–Y–glycine, where 10 and Y are proline and hydroxyproline (Lee et al., 2001).

Regarding the biomedical applications of collagen, due to its excellent structural, concrete, immunological, and chemical properties, more than exactly biodegradability, biocompatibility, and the capability to support cellular growth, it has been used for tissue engineering, wound repair, centre valves, vascular grafts and blood vessels, ocular surfaces, tendon repair, nerve regeneration, and muscular engineering (Lee et al., 2001; Parenteau-Bareil et al., 2010).

The purpose of this affiliate is to give a cursory description of the collagen molecule, taking into business relationship its structure, origin, and the functions of various types of collagen, followed past the main methods of extraction, and, ultimately, the chief applications and developments in collagen-based soft tissue technology biomaterials will be discussed.

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Approaching Human Hand Dexterity Through Highly Biomimetic Design

Zhe Xu , in Human Inspired Dexterity in Robotic Manipulation, 2018

6.iii.4 Tendon Sheaths

As shown in Fig. 6.6 , the tendon sheaths are fibrous tissues that wrap around the flexor tendons and take multiple insertions on the dorsal side of finger bones. Although made of tough collagen-based tissues, these pulleys could tear and rupture when they are continuously subject to intense flexion forces during rock climbing. We take briefly mentioned the part of tendon sheaths when introducing the flexor tendons in the previous department. Based on the altitude to the MCP articulation, each section of the tendon sheaths has been named after a numbered annular pulley in nomenclatures of hand beefcake due to their of import functions. Mechanical engineers design different pulley systems to apply forces and transmit power through cables. The tendon sheaths in the human manus work as a series of elastic pulleys to aid transmit forces from the muscles to the joints, as the tendon sheaths tin can flatten down when the finger straightens and bulge out when the finger bends.

Fig. six.6. Schematic drawing showing the bulging process of the tendon sheaths (the pulleys) during finger flexion. Left: Different insertion sites of the tendon sheaths. Right: Mechanical analogy of the bending finger showing the increase in moment arms under the furnishings of elastic pulleys.

This is some other important biomechanical characteristic that we are interested in mimicking. As illustrated in Fig. 6.half dozen, when the finger straightens, no matter how hard the flexion muscles contract, reduced flexion torque is transmitted to the finger due to decreased moment arms at the fingers. In our daily lives, this won't happen to our paw often, unless co-contraction of the paw (contracting both the extensor and flexor muscles simultaneously) is really required. Therefore, the rubberband caster system can finer deliver large torques to the finger joints when a house grip of an object is needed, but keep the torques at the finger joints small when the mitt is at residuum.

Together with the gliding mechanism of the extensor hood, the elastic pulleys of the fingers are the essential building blocks that greatly touch the dexterity of the human hand. It is of our involvement to comprise these salient features into the design of our biomimetic robotic hand.

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Ocular drug delivery systems

Kritika Nayak , ... Manju Misra , in Drug Commitment Devices and Therapeutic Systems, 2021

2.x Sclera, choroid, and retina

White-colored (except in corneal region) hydrated fibrous tissue covering the whole eye is the sclera, covered past a thin vascular layer chosen episclera. Below it, there exists vascular and gristly choroid, which is quite fluidic in nature. Information technology is comprised of a big number of claret capillaries that supply nutrients to both sclera and retina. Information technology is besides one of the routes to eliminate metabolites or other excretory/harmful products from the interior centre. Although its role is helpful in maintaining homeostasis in normal conditions, it poses hurdles in drug assimilation. When a drug or topical ODDS was applied, it becomes relatively like shooting fish in a barrel for them to cross sclera as it has larger pores and more surface expanse equally compared to the cornea. In the case of systemic delivery of drugs, the drug passes through sclera easily. Because drug properties, molecular radii matter more than the polarity of the drug for it to cross sclera due to its fibrous nature [38]. However, choroid poses a major bulwark as it facilitates drug or ODDS elimination attributable to its vascular and fluidic nature.

The retina can be analogized with a mirror. It is the innermost, vascular, neural tissue where images are formed. From here, signals are transmitted to the brain through optic nerves. Similar to the choroid, it besides incompletely envelops eye on the posterior side simply. Information technology is made upwards of almost 10 layers namely inner limiting layer, nerve cobweb layer, ganglion cell layer, inner plexiform layer, inner nuclear layer, outer plexiform layer, outer nuclear layer, outer limiting layer, photoreceptor layer (rods and cones), and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Like CE, cells in RPE also possess tight junctions restricting whatsoever paracellular transport of oppositely (positively) charged polar hydrophilic molecule. A region of the retina is called macula where cones be in relatively high concentrations concentrically. The focus of incoming light on macula gives best images. The whole retina is supplied by the central and posterior retinal arteries and its branches forth with choroidal blood vessels. The venous outflow of the retina is the major route of drug elimination from information technology. RPE and endothelium of retinal blood vessels form blood-retinal bulwark (BRB), which is another mammoth obstacle in retinal drug delivery [39].

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Dissolvable-soluble or biodegradable polymers

Shubham Khot , ... Mayur Grand. Patel , in Drug Delivery Devices and Therapeutic Systems, 2021

3.one.ii.i Collagen

Collagen is the major component of mammalian connective tissue more often than not found in fibrous tissues such as ligament, tendon, and peel. Information technology accounts for approximately 30% of protein content in the human body. Due to its abundance and unique physical and biological properties, type I collagen has been utilized extensively in the development of biopolymers [46]. The capillary wall of collagen is responsible for regulation of send across the wall, considering of which collagen itself tin can be used as a biomarker for drug transport. Moreover, the capillary wall is also considered as 1 of the barriers modulating the substitution of nutrients between tumor microenvironment and systemic apportionment. Ziemys et al. [47] investigated using in vivo experiments on 3LL and 4T1 tumors to observe the differences in the collagen content in capillary walls. After analyzing the experimental data and transport computational model of the capillary microenvironment, it was observed that internalization of doxorubicin and PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin was limited as collagen amount was increased in the capillaries of the 3LL tumors [10]. The simple chemical modifications, such every bit crosslinking, return an array of modulations likewise as draw its potential in a wide range of drug delivery and tissue-engineering applications.

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Thin films for tissue engineering applications

M. Mozafari , ... D.K. Mills , in Sparse Motion-picture show Coatings for Biomaterials and Biomedical Applications, 2016

viii.2.4 Biomimetic arroyo

In most cases, bone defects filled with biocompatible materials are encapsulated past fibrous tissue separated from the surrounding bones. It is known that various types of ceramics bail to living bone without forming fibrous tissues around them. Hydroxyapatite, bioactive glass, and glass–ceramic A-Westward including apatite and wollastonite (CaO·SiO ₂) are ofttimes used every bit bone-restorative materials for clinical applications. ⁸⁴ Although these biomaterials have excellent mechanical force, they cannot be used confidently nether high load-bearing conditions such equally femoral and tibia basic. This phenomenon occurs for two master reasons: their low fracture toughness and their high elastic modulus with respect to human being cortical os.

It is known for diverse kinds of glasses and glass-ceramics that the essential requirement for them to bond to living bone is the formation of a biologically agile bonelike apatite layer on their surfaces in the trunk. ⁸⁵ This bonelike apatite layer can be reproduced on their surfaces equally a sparse film. ⁸⁶ The machinery of bonelike apatite formation on their surfaces is associated with their surface chemistry. These findings enable us to form apatite sparse films even on surfaces of metals and organic polymers through the biomimetic approach.

All known kinds of bioactive materials bond to living bone through an apatite layer that is formed on their surfaces in the living torso. The apatite layer can exist reproduced on their surfaces in acellular SBF with ion concentrations near equal to those of human blood plasma ⁸⁷ and are identified as a thin film of carbonate-containing HA with small crystallites and defective structures similar to apatite in natural os. ⁸⁸ The mechanism of biomimetic apatite formation on the surfaces of bioactive glass and glass–ceramics in the living body is explained as follows. ⁸⁹ Calcium release from them increases ionic activity in the surrounding fluid, and hydrated silica on their surfaces provides apatite nucleation sites. Later the germination of apatite nuclei, they grow by consuming calcium and phosphate ions, considering the body fluid is supersaturated with these ions. ⁹⁰ These findings provide a biomimetic method for forming a bonelike apatite sparse film on different substrates. ⁹¹ Uncomplicated oxide gels with compositions such equally TiO₂, ZrO₂, Nb₂O₅ and Ta₂O₅ also course an apatite thin film blanket on their surfaces in SBF. ⁹¹ This shows that even metallic materials based on Ti, Zr, Nb and/or Ta can course apatite layers on their surfaces in the living trunk and bond to living bone through apatite layers when their surfaces are slightly modified (Fig. 8.7).

Figure 8.7. Procedure of apatite formation in simulated trunk fluid (SBF) on Ti metal subjected to acid NaOH and heat handling. ⁹²

In the past few decades, many methods such as concrete machining and controlled oxidation have been used to ameliorate the in vivo osseointegration of titanium-based implants. Calcium phosphate–based sparse films such as HA take been used oftentimes on orthopaedic implants. Equally a new concept in tissue engineering, it has been suggested that HA has distinct luminescence properties allowing rapid identification of stage distribution of biomimetic apatite thin films. In a research study, Sepahvandi et al. ⁹³ reported that the photoluminescence property can be used in the characterization and early detection of biomimetic bonelike apatite formation on the surface of alkaline-treated titanium implants (in SBF solution).

According to their state-of-the-art research, the researchers concluded that the photoluminescence emission tiptop did non take a significant shift to shorter or higher wavelengths, and the photoluminescence intensity increased equally the exposure fourth dimension increased. This enquiry proved that the observed inherent photoluminescence of biomimetic apatite thin films tin exist of specific interest for histological probing and bone remodelling monitoring. In that report, the formation of apatite thin film on the surface of implants was confirmed by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analysis, so the appearance of apatite formation after immersion in SBF solution was established by EDX, equally shown in Fig. 8.8(a). As can be seen, the EDX spectrum shows the peaks of Ti, Al and V elements related to the titanium implant, and the peaks of P, Ca and C stand for to the newly formed biomimetic apatite sparse motion picture. Also, co-ordinate to the Ca and P peaks of the EDX graph, the Ca–P tooth ratio was calculated to be in the range of two.6, which could be related to nonstoichiometric hydroxy-carbonate apatite. ^94,95 In add-on, Fig. viii.8(b) shows a scanning electron micrograph of the cross section of the implant after immersion in SBF solution, indicating that the newly formed biomimetic apatite thickness of the specimens is less than five   μm and as well homogeneous and uniform.

Figure 8.8. (a) Free energy-dispersive X-ray design and (b) scanning electron micrograph of the cross-department of newly formed biomimetic apatite sparse movie after seven   days immersion in SBF. ⁹³

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